Attachment #175095 for bug #212935

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    <itemizedlist>
      <listitem>
        <para>How to add additional hard disks to a &os;
          system.</para>
      </listitem>

      <listitem>
        <para>How to grow the size of a disk's partition on
          &os;.</para>
      </listitem>

      <listitem>
        <para>How to configure &os; to use <acronym>USB</acronym>
          storage devices.</para>
      </listitem>

      <listitem>
        <para>How to use <acronym>CD</acronym> and
          <acronym>DVD</acronym> media on a &os; system.</para>
      </listitem>

      <listitem>
        <para>How to use the backup programs available under
          &os;.</para>
      </listitem>

      <listitem>
        <para>How to set up memory disks.</para>
      </listitem>

      <listitem>
        <para>What file system snapshots are and how to use them
          efficiently.</para>
      </listitem>

      <listitem>
        <para>How to use quotas to limit disk space usage.</para>
      </listitem>

      <listitem>
        <para>How to encrypt disks and swap to secure them against
          attackers.</para>
      </listitem>

      <listitem>
        <para>How to configure a highly available storage
          network.</para>
      </listitem>
    </itemizedlist>



    <itemizedlist>
      <listitem>
        <para>Know how to <link linkend="kernelconfig">configure and
            install a new &os; kernel</link>.</para>
      </listitem>
    </itemizedlist>
  </sect1>

      <title>Adding Disks</title>

      <authorgroup>
        <author>
          <personname>
            <firstname>David</firstname>
            <surname>O'Brien</surname>
          </personname>
          <contrib>Originally contributed by </contrib>
        </author>
      </authorgroup>
    </info>



    <para>For this example, a single large partition will be created
      on the new disk.  The <link
        xlink:href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GUID_Partition_Table">
        <acronym>GPT</acronym></link> partitioning scheme will be
      used in preference to the older and less versatile
      <acronym>MBR</acronym> scheme.</para>

    <note>
      <para>If the disk to be added is not blank, old partition
        information can be removed with
        <command>gpart delete</command>.  See &man.gpart.8; for
        details.</para>
    </note>

    <para>The partition scheme is created, and then a single partition

      <filename>/etc/fstab</filename> so the new disk will be mounted
      automatically at startup:</para>

    <programlisting>/dev/ada1p1 /newdisk        ufs     rw      2       2</programlisting>

    <para>The new disk can be mounted manually, without restarting the
      system:</para>

      <title>Resizing and Growing Disks</title>

      <authorgroup>
        <author>
          <personname>
            <firstname>Allan</firstname>
            <surname>Jude</surname>
          </personname>
          <contrib>Originally contributed by </contrib>
        </author>
      </authorgroup>
    </info>



    <note>
      <para>If the disk was formatted with the <link
          xlink:href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GUID_Partition_Table">
        <acronym>GPT</acronym></link> partitioning scheme, it may show
        as <quote>corrupted</quote> because the <acronym>GPT</acronym>
        backup partition table is no longer at the end of the
        drive.  Fix the backup
        partition table with
        <command>gpart</command>:</para>

      <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>gpart recover <replaceable>ada0</replaceable></userinput>
ada0 recovered</screen>


    <warning>
      <para>There is risk of data loss when modifying the partition
        table of a mounted file system.  It is best to perform the
        following steps on an unmounted file system while running from
        a live <acronym>CD-ROM</acronym> or <acronym>USB</acronym>
        device.  However, if absolutely necessary, a mounted file
        system can be  resized after disabling GEOM safety
        features:</para>

      <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>sysctl kern.geom.debugflags=16</userinput></screen>
    </warning>


    <note>
      <para>Growing a live <acronym>UFS</acronym> file system is only
        possible in &os; 10.0-RELEASE and later.  For earlier
        versions, the file system must not be mounted.</para>
    </note>

    <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>growfs <replaceable>/dev/ada0p2</replaceable></userinput>

      <title><acronym>USB</acronym> Storage Devices</title>

      <authorgroup>
        <author>
          <personname>
            <firstname>Marc</firstname>
            <surname>Fonvieille</surname>
          </personname>
          <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
        </author>
      </authorgroup>
    </info>



    <note>
      <para><acronym>USB</acronym> 3.0 support is not compatible with
        some hardware, including Haswell (Lynx point) chipsets.  If
        &os; boots with a <errorname>failed with error 19</errorname>
        message, disable xHCI/USB3 in the system
        <acronym>BIOS</acronym>.</para>
    </note>

    <para>Support for <acronym>USB</acronym> storage devices is built

      kernel, be sure that the following lines are present in the
      kernel configuration file:</para>

    <programlisting>device scbus        # SCSI bus (required for ATA/SCSI)
device da       # Direct Access (disks)
device pass     # Passthrough device (direct ATA/SCSI access)
device uhci     # provides USB 1.x support
device ohci     # provides USB 1.x support
device ehci     # provides USB 2.0 support
device xhci     # provides USB 3.0 support
device usb      # USB Bus (required)
device umass    # Disks/Mass storage - Requires scbus and da
device cd       # needed for CD and DVD burners</programlisting>

    <para>&os; uses the &man.umass.4; driver which uses the
      <acronym>SCSI</acronym> subsystem to access

      <title>Device Configuration</title>

      <para>To test the <acronym>USB</acronym> configuration, plug in
        the <acronym>USB</acronym> device.  Use
        <command>dmesg</command> to confirm that the drive appears in
        the system message buffer.  It should look something like
        this:</para>

      <screen>umass0: &lt;STECH Simple Drive, class 0/0, rev 2.00/1.04, addr 3&gt; on usbus0
umass0:  SCSI over Bulk-Only; quirks = 0x0100

da0: quirks=0x2&lt;NO_6_BYTE&gt;</screen>

      <para>The brand, device node (<filename>da0</filename>), speed,
        and size will differ according to the device.</para>

      <para>Since the <acronym>USB</acronym> device is seen as a
        <acronym>SCSI</acronym> one, <command>camcontrol</command> can
        be used to list the <acronym>USB</acronym> storage devices
        attached to the system:</para>

      <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>camcontrol devlist</userinput>
&lt;STECH Simple Drive 1.04&gt;          at scbus4 target 0 lun 0 (pass3,da0)</screen>

      <para>Alternately, <command>usbconfig</command> can be used to
        list the device.  Refer to &man.usbconfig.8; for more
        information about this command.</para>

      <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>usbconfig</userinput>
ugen0.3: &lt;Simple Drive STECH&gt; at usbus0, cfg=0 md=HOST spd=HIGH (480Mbps) pwr=ON (2mA)</screen>

      <para>If the device has not been formatted, refer to <xref
          linkend="disks-adding"/> for instructions on how to format
        and create partitions on the <acronym>USB</acronym> drive.  If
        the drive comes with a file system, it can be mounted by
        <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> using the
        instructions in <xref linkend="mount-unmount"/>.</para>

      <warning>
        <para>Allowing untrusted users to mount arbitrary media, by
          enabling <varname>vfs.usermount</varname> as described
          below, should not be considered safe from a security point
          of view.  Most file systems were not built to safeguard
          against malicious devices.</para>
      </warning>

      <para>To make the device mountable as a normal user, one
        solution is to make all users of the device a member of the
        <systemitem class="groupname">operator</systemitem> group
        using &man.pw.8;.  Next, ensure that <systemitem
          class="groupname">operator</systemitem> is able to read and
        write the device by adding these lines to
        <filename>/etc/devfs.rules</filename>:</para>

      <programlisting>[localrules=5]
add path 'da*' mode 0660 group operator</programlisting>

      <note>
        <para>If internal <acronym>SCSI</acronym> disks are also
          installed in the system, change the second line as
          follows:</para>

        <programlisting>add path 'da[<replaceable>3</replaceable>-9]*' mode 0660 group operator</programlisting>

        <para>This will exclude the first three
          <acronym>SCSI</acronym> disks (<filename>da0</filename> to
          <filename>da2</filename>)from belonging to the <systemitem
            class="groupname">operator</systemitem> group.  Replace
          <replaceable>3</replaceable> with the number of internal
          <acronym>SCSI</acronym> disks.  Refer to &man.devfs.rules.5;
          for more information about this file.</para>
      </note>

      <para>Next, enable the ruleset in
        <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>

      <programlisting>devfs_system_ruleset="localrules"</programlisting>

      <para>Then, instruct the system to allow regular users to mount
        file systems by adding the following line to
        <filename>/etc/sysctl.conf</filename>:</para>

      <programlisting>vfs.usermount=1</programlisting>

      <para>Since this only takes effect after the next reboot, use
        <command>sysctl</command> to set this variable now:</para>

      <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>sysctl vfs.usermount=1</userinput>
vfs.usermount: 0 -&gt; 1</screen>

      <para>The final step is to create a directory where the file
        system is to be mounted.  This directory needs to be owned by
        the user that is to mount the file system.  One way to do that
        is for <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> to
        create a subdirectory owned by that user as <filename
          >/mnt/<replaceable>username</replaceable></filename>.
        In the following example, replace
        <replaceable>username</replaceable> with the login name of the
        user and <replaceable>usergroup</replaceable> with the user's
        primary group:</para>

      <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>mkdir /mnt/<replaceable>username</replaceable></userinput>
&prompt.root; <userinput>chown <replaceable>username</replaceable>:<replaceable>usergroup</replaceable> /mnt/<replaceable>username</replaceable></userinput></screen>

      <para>Suppose a <acronym>USB</acronym> thumbdrive is plugged in,
        and a device <filename>/dev/da0s1</filename> appears.  If the
        device is formatted with a <acronym>FAT</acronym> file system,
        the user can mount it using:</para>

      <screen>&prompt.user; <userinput>mount -t msdosfs -o -m=644,-M=755 /dev/da0s1 /mnt/<replaceable>username</replaceable></userinput></screen>

      <para>Before the device can be unplugged, it
        <emphasis>must</emphasis> be unmounted first:</para>

      <screen>&prompt.user; <userinput>umount /mnt/<replaceable>username</replaceable></userinput></screen>

      <para>After device removal, the system message buffer will show
        messages similar to the following:</para>

      <screen>umass0: at uhub3, port 2, addr 3 (disconnected)
da0 at umass-sim0 bus 0 scbus4 target 0 lun 0

      <title>Automounting Removable Media</title>

      <note>
        <para>&man.autofs.5; supports automatic mounting of
          removable media starting with &os;&nbsp;10.2-RELEASE.</para>
      </note>

      <para><acronym>USB</acronym> devices can be automatically
        mounted by uncommenting this line in
        <filename>/etc/auto_master</filename>:</para>

      <screen>/media            -media          -nosuid</screen>

      <para>Then add these lines to
        <filename>/etc/devd.conf</filename>:</para>

      <screen>notify 100 {
        match "system" "GEOM";
        match "subsystem" "DEV";
        action "/usr/sbin/automount -c";
};</screen>

      <para>Reload the configuration if &man.autofs.5;
        and &man.devd.8; are already running:</para>

      <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>service automount reload</userinput>
&prompt.root; <userinput>service devd restart</userinput></screen>

      <para>&man.autofs.5; can be set to start at boot by adding this
        line to <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>

      <programlisting>autofs_enable="YES"</programlisting>

      <para>&man.autofs.5; requires &man.devd.8; to be enabled, as it
        is by default.</para>

      <para>Start the services immediately with:</para>


&prompt.root; <userinput>service devd start</userinput></screen>

      <para>Each file system that can be automatically mounted appears
        as a directory in <filename>/media/</filename>.  The directory
        is named after the file system label.  If the label is
        missing, the directory is named after the device node.</para>

      <para>The file system is transparently mounted on the first
        access, and unmounted after a period of inactivity.
        Automounted drives can also be unmounted manually:</para>

      <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>automount -fu</userinput></screen>

      <para>This mechanism is typically used for memory cards and
        <acronym>USB</acronym> memory sticks.  It can be used with
        any block device, including optical drives or
        <acronym>iSCSI</acronym> <acronym>LUN</acronym>s.</para>
    </sect2>
  </sect1>


      <title>Creating and Using <acronym>CD</acronym> Media</title>

      <authorgroup>
        <author>
          <personname>
            <firstname>Mike</firstname>
            <surname>Meyer</surname>
          </personname>
          <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
        </author>
      </authorgroup>
    </info>



    <sect2 xml:id="atapicam">
      <info>
        <title>Supported Devices</title>

        <authorgroup>
          <author>
            <personname>
              <firstname>Marc</firstname>
              <surname>Fonvieille</surname>
            </personname>
            <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
          </author>
        </authorgroup>
      </info>

      <indexterm>
        <primary><acronym>CD</acronym> burner</primary>
        <secondary>ATAPI/CAM driver</secondary>
      </indexterm>

      <para>The <filename>GENERIC</filename> kernel provides support
        for <acronym>SCSI</acronym>,  <acronym>USB</acronym>, and
        <acronym>ATAPI</acronym> <acronym>CD</acronym> readers and
        burners.  If a custom kernel is used, the options that need to
        be present in the kernel configuration file vary by the type
        of device.</para>

      <para>For a <acronym>SCSI</acronym> burner, make sure these
        options are present:</para>

      <programlisting>device scbus      # SCSI bus (required for ATA/SCSI)
device da       # Direct Access (disks)
device pass     # Passthrough device (direct ATA/SCSI access)
device cd       # needed for CD and DVD burners</programlisting>

      <para>For a <acronym>USB</acronym> burner, make sure these
        options are present:</para>

      <programlisting>device scbus      # SCSI bus (required for ATA/SCSI)
device da       # Direct Access (disks)
device pass     # Passthrough device (direct ATA/SCSI access)
device cd       # needed for CD and DVD burners
device uhci     # provides USB 1.x support
device ohci     # provides USB 1.x support
device ehci     # provides USB 2.0 support
device xhci     # provides USB 3.0 support
device usb      # USB Bus (required)
device umass    # Disks/Mass storage - Requires scbus and da</programlisting>

      <para>For an <acronym>ATAPI</acronym> burner, make sure these
        options are present:</para>

      <programlisting>device ata        # Legacy ATA/SATA controllers
device scbus    # SCSI bus (required for ATA/SCSI)
device pass     # Passthrough device (direct ATA/SCSI access)
device cd       # needed for CD and DVD burners</programlisting>

      <note>
        <para>On &os; versions prior to 10.x, this line is also
          needed in the kernel configuration file if the burner is an
          <acronym>ATAPI</acronym> device:</para>

        <programlisting>device atapicam</programlisting>

        <para>Alternately, this driver can be loaded at boot time by
          adding the following line to
          <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename>:</para>

        <programlisting>atapicam_load="YES"</programlisting>

        <para>This will require a reboot of the system as this driver
          can only be loaded at boot time.</para>
      </note>

      <para>To verify that &os; recognizes the device, run
        <command>dmesg</command> and look for an entry for the device.
        On systems prior to 10.x, the device name in the first line of
        the output will be <filename>acd0</filename> instead of
        <filename>cd0</filename>.</para>

      <screen>&prompt.user; <userinput>dmesg | grep cd</userinput>
cd0 at ahcich1 bus 0 scbus1 target 0 lun 0

      <title>Burning a <acronym>CD</acronym></title>

      <para>In &os;, <command>cdrecord</command> can be used to burn
        <acronym>CD</acronym>s.  This command is installed with the
        <package>sysutils/cdrtools</package> package or port.</para>

      <para>While <command>cdrecord</command> has many options, basic
        usage is simple.  Specify the name of the
        <acronym>ISO</acronym> file to burn and, if the system has
        multiple burner devices, specify the name of the device to
        use:</para>

      <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>cdrecord <replaceable>dev=device</replaceable> <replaceable>imagefile.iso</replaceable></userinput></screen>

      <para>To determine the device name of the burner, use
        <option>-scanbus</option> which might produce results like
        this:</para>

      <indexterm>
        <primary><acronym>CD-ROM</acronym>s</primary>
        <secondary>burning</secondary>
      </indexterm>
      <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>cdrecord -scanbus</userinput>
ProDVD-ProBD-Clone 3.00 (amd64-unknown-freebsd10.0) Copyright (C) 1995-2010 J&ouml;rg Schilling

        1,7,0   107) *</screen>

      <para>Locate the entry for the <acronym>CD</acronym> burner and
        use the three numbers separated by commas as the value for
        <option>dev</option>.  In this case, the Yamaha burner device
        is <literal>1,5,0</literal>, so the appropriate input to
        specify that device is <option>dev=1,5,0</option>.  Refer to
        the manual page for <command>cdrecord</command> for other ways
        to specify this value and for information on writing audio
        tracks and controlling the write speed.</para>

      <para>Alternately, run the following command to get the device
        address of the burner:</para>

      <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>camcontrol devlist</userinput>
&lt;MATSHITA CDRW/DVD UJDA740 1.00&gt;   at scbus1 target 0 lun 0 (cd0,pass0)</screen>

      <para>Use the numeric values for <literal>scbus</literal>,
        <literal>target</literal>, and <literal>lun</literal>.  For
        this example, <literal>1,0,0</literal> is the device name to
        use.</para>
    </sect2>

    <sect2 xml:id="mkisofs">
      <title>Writing Data to an <acronym>ISO</acronym> File
        System</title>

      <para>In order to produce a data <acronym>CD</acronym>, the data
        files that are going to make up the tracks on the
        <acronym>CD</acronym> must be prepared before they can be
        burned to the <acronym>CD</acronym>.  In &os;,
        <package>sysutils/cdrtools</package> installs
        <command>mkisofs</command>, which can be used to produce an
        <acronym>ISO</acronym> 9660 file system that is an image of a
        directory tree within a &unix; file system.  The simplest
        usage is to specify the name of the <acronym>ISO</acronym>
        file to create and the path to the files to place into the
        <acronym>ISO</acronym> 9660 file system:</para>

      <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>mkisofs -o <replaceable>imagefile.iso</replaceable> <replaceable>/path/to/tree</replaceable></userinput></screen>

      <indexterm>
        <primary>file systems</primary>
        <secondary>ISO 9660</secondary>
      </indexterm>

      <para>This command maps the file names in the specified path to
        names that fit the limitations of the standard
        <acronym>ISO</acronym> 9660 file system, and will exclude
        files that do not meet the standard for <acronym>ISO</acronym>
        file systems.</para>

      <indexterm>
        <primary>file systems</primary>
        <secondary>Joliet</secondary>
      </indexterm>

      <para>A number of options are available to overcome the
        restrictions imposed by the standard.  In particular,
        <option>-R</option> enables the Rock Ridge extensions common
        to &unix; systems and <option>-J</option> enables Joliet
        extensions used by &microsoft; systems.</para>

      <para>For <acronym>CD</acronym>s that are going to be used only
        on &os; systems, <option>-U</option> can be used to disable
        all filename restrictions.  When used with
        <option>-R</option>, it produces a file system image that is
        identical to the specified &os; tree, even if it violates the
        <acronym>ISO</acronym> 9660 standard.</para>

      <indexterm>
        <primary><acronym>CD-ROM</acronym>s</primary>
        <secondary>creating bootable</secondary>
      </indexterm>

      <para>The last option of general use is <option>-b</option>.
        This is used to specify the location of a boot image for use
        in producing an <quote>El Torito</quote> bootable
        <acronym>CD</acronym>.  This option takes an argument which is
        the path to a boot image from the top of the tree being
        written to the <acronym>CD</acronym>.  By default,
        <command>mkisofs</command> creates an <acronym>ISO</acronym>
        image in <quote>floppy disk emulation</quote> mode, and thus
        expects the boot image to be exactly 1200, 1440 or
        2880&nbsp;KB in size.  Some boot loaders, like the one used by
        the &os; distribution media, do not use emulation mode.  In
        this case, <option>-no-emul-boot</option> should be used.  So,
        if <filename>/tmp/myboot</filename> holds a bootable &os;
        system with the boot image in
        <filename>/tmp/myboot/boot/cdboot</filename>, this command
        would produce
        <filename>/tmp/bootable.iso</filename>:</para>

      <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>mkisofs -R -no-emul-boot -b boot/cdboot -o /tmp/bootable.iso /tmp/myboot</userinput></screen>

      <para>The resulting <acronym>ISO</acronym> image can be mounted
        as a memory disk with:</para>

      <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>mdconfig -a -t vnode -f /tmp/bootable.iso -u 0</userinput>
&prompt.root; <userinput>mount -t cd9660 /dev/md0 /mnt</userinput></screen>

      <para>One can then verify that <filename>/mnt</filename> and
        <filename>/tmp/myboot</filename> are identical.</para>

      <para>There are many other options available for
        <command>mkisofs</command> to fine-tune its behavior.  Refer
        to &man.mkisofs.8; for details.</para>

      <note>
        <para>It is possible to copy a data <acronym>CD</acronym> to
          an image file that is functionally equivalent to the image
          file created with <command>mkisofs</command>.  To do so, use
          <filename>dd</filename> with the device name as the input
          file and the name of the <acronym>ISO</acronym> to create as
          the output file:</para>

        <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>dd if=/dev/<replaceable>cd0</replaceable> of=<replaceable>file.iso</replaceable> bs=2048</userinput></screen>

        <para>The resulting image file can be burned to
          <acronym>CD</acronym> as described in <xref
            linkend="cdrecord"/>.</para>
      </note>
    </sect2>


      <title>Using Data <acronym>CD</acronym>s</title>

      <para>Once an <acronym>ISO</acronym> has been burned to a
        <acronym>CD</acronym>, it can be mounted by specifying the
        file system type, the name of the device containing the
        <acronym>CD</acronym>, and an existing mount point:</para>

      <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>mount -t cd9660 <replaceable>/dev/cd0</replaceable> <replaceable>/mnt</replaceable></userinput></screen>

      <para>Since <command>mount</command> assumes that a file system
        is of type <literal>ufs</literal>, a <errorname>Incorrect
          super block</errorname> error will occur if <literal>-t
          cd9660</literal> is not included when mounting a data
        <acronym>CD</acronym>.</para>

      <para>While any data <acronym>CD</acronym> can be mounted this
        way, disks with certain <acronym>ISO</acronym> 9660 extensions
        might behave oddly.  For example, Joliet disks store all
        filenames in two-byte Unicode characters.  If some non-English
        characters show up as question marks, specify the local
        charset with <option>-C</option>.  For more information, refer
        to &man.mount.cd9660.8;.</para>

      <note>
        <para>In order to do this character conversion with the help
          of <option>-C</option>, the kernel requires the
          <filename>cd9660_iconv.ko</filename> module to be loaded.
          This can be done either by adding this line to
          <filename>loader.conf</filename>:</para>

        <programlisting>cd9660_iconv_load="YES"</programlisting>

        <para>and then rebooting the machine, or by directly loading
          the module with <command>kldload</command>.</para>
      </note>

      <para>Occasionally, <errorname>Device not configured</errorname>
        will be displayed when trying to mount a data
        <acronym>CD</acronym>.  This usually means that the
        <acronym>CD</acronym> drive has not detected a disk in
        the tray, or that the drive is not visible on the bus.  It
        can take a couple of seconds for a <acronym>CD</acronym>
        drive to detect media, so be
        patient.</para>

      <para>Sometimes, a <acronym>SCSI</acronym>
        <acronym>CD</acronym> drive may be missed because it did not
        have enough time to answer the bus reset.  To resolve this,
        a custom kernel can be created which increases the default
        <acronym>SCSI</acronym> delay.  Add the following option to
        the custom kernel configuration file and rebuild the kernel
        using the instructions in <xref
          linkend="kernelconfig-building"/>:</para>

      <programlisting>options SCSI_DELAY=15000</programlisting>

      <para>This tells the <acronym>SCSI</acronym> bus to pause 15
        seconds during boot, to give the <acronym>CD</acronym>
        drive every possible chance to answer the bus reset.</para>

      <note>
        <para>It is possible to burn a file directly to
          <acronym>CD</acronym>, without creating an
          <acronym>ISO</acronym> 9660 file system.  This is known as
          burning a raw data <acronym>CD</acronym> and some people do
          this for backup purposes.</para>

        <para>This type of disk can not be mounted as a normal data
          <acronym>CD</acronym>.  In order to retrieve the data burned
          to such a <acronym>CD</acronym>, the data must be read from
          the raw device node.  For example, this command will extract
          a compressed tar file located on the second
          <acronym>CD</acronym> device into the current working
          directory:</para>

        <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>tar xzvf /dev/<replaceable>cd1</replaceable></userinput></screen>

        <para>  In order to mount a data <acronym>CD</acronym>, the
          data must be written using
          <command>mkisofs</command>.</para>
      </note>
    </sect2>


      <title>Duplicating Audio <acronym>CD</acronym>s</title>

      <para>To duplicate an audio <acronym>CD</acronym>, extract the
        audio data from the <acronym>CD</acronym> to a series of
        files, then write these files to a blank
        <acronym>CD</acronym>.</para>

      <para><xref linkend="using-cdrecord"/> describes how to
        duplicate and burn an audio <acronym>CD</acronym>.  If the
        &os; version is less than 10.0 and the device is
        <acronym>ATAPI</acronym>, the <option>atapicam</option> module
        must be first loaded using the instructions in <xref
          linkend="atapicam"/>.</para>

      <procedure xml:id="using-cdrecord">
        <title>Duplicating an Audio <acronym>CD</acronym></title>

        <step>
          <para>The <package>sysutils/cdrtools</package> package or
            port installs <command>cdda2wav</command>.  This command
            can be used to extract all of the audio tracks, with each
            track written to a separate <acronym>WAV</acronym> file in
            the current working directory:</para>

          <screen>&prompt.user; <userinput>cdda2wav -vall -B -Owav</userinput></screen>

          <para>A device name does not need to be specified if there
            is only one <acronym>CD</acronym> device on the system.
            Refer to the <command>cdda2wav</command> manual page for
            instructions on how to specify a device and to learn more
            about the other options available for this command.</para>
        </step>

        <step>
          <para>Use <command>cdrecord</command> to write the
            <filename>.wav</filename> files:</para>

          <screen>&prompt.user; <userinput>cdrecord -v dev=<replaceable>2,0</replaceable> -dao -useinfo  *.wav</userinput></screen>

          <para>Make sure that <replaceable>2,0</replaceable> is set
            appropriately, as described in <xref
              linkend="cdrecord"/>.</para>
        </step>
      </procedure>
    </sect2>
  </sect1>

      <title>Creating and Using <acronym>DVD</acronym> Media</title>

      <authorgroup>
        <author>
          <personname>
            <firstname>Marc</firstname>
            <surname>Fonvieille</surname>
          </personname>
          <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
        </author>
      </authorgroup>
      <authorgroup>
        <author>
          <personname>
            <firstname>Andy</firstname>
            <surname>Polyakov</surname>
          </personname>
          <contrib>With inputs from </contrib>
        </author>
      </authorgroup>
    </info>



    <itemizedlist>
      <listitem>
        <para>DVD-R: This was the first <acronym>DVD</acronym>
          recordable format available.  The DVD-R standard is defined
          by the <link
            xlink:href="http://www.dvdforum.com/forum.shtml"><acronym>DVD</acronym>
            Forum</link>.  This format is write once.</para>
      </listitem>

      <listitem>
        <para><acronym>DVD-RW</acronym>: This is the rewritable
          version of the DVD-R standard.  A
          <acronym>DVD-RW</acronym> can be rewritten about 1000
          times.</para>
      </listitem>

      <listitem>
        <para><acronym>DVD-RAM</acronym>: This is a rewritable format
          which can be seen as a removable hard drive.  However, this
          media is not compatible with most
          <acronym>DVD-ROM</acronym> drives and DVD-Video players as
          only a few <acronym>DVD</acronym> writers support the
          <acronym>DVD-RAM</acronym> format.  Refer to <xref
            linkend="creating-dvd-ram"/> for more information on
          <acronym>DVD-RAM</acronym> use.</para>
      </listitem>

      <listitem>
        <para><acronym>DVD+RW</acronym>: This is a rewritable format
          defined by the <link
            xlink:href="http://www.dvdrw.com/"><acronym>DVD+RW</acronym>
            Alliance</link>.  A <acronym>DVD+RW</acronym> can be
          rewritten about 1000 times.</para>
      </listitem>

      <listitem>
        <para>DVD+R: This format is the write once variation of the
          <acronym>DVD+RW</acronym> format.</para>
      </listitem>
    </itemizedlist>



    <note>
      <para>A distinction must be made between the physical media and
        the application.  For example, a DVD-Video is a specific file
        layout that can be written on any recordable
        <acronym>DVD</acronym> physical media such as DVD-R, DVD+R, or
        <acronym>DVD-RW</acronym>.  Before choosing the type of media,
        ensure that both the burner and the DVD-Video player are
        compatible with the media under consideration.</para>
    </note>

    <sect2>

      <title>Configuration</title>

      <para>To perform <acronym>DVD</acronym> recording, use
        &man.growisofs.1;.  This command is part of the
        <package>sysutils/dvd+rw-tools</package> utilities which
        support all <acronym>DVD</acronym> media types.</para>

      <para>These tools use the <acronym>SCSI</acronym> subsystem to
        access the devices, therefore <link
          linkend="atapicam">ATAPI/CAM support</link> must be loaded
        or statically compiled into the kernel.  This support is not
        needed if the burner uses the <acronym>USB</acronym>
        interface.  Refer to <xref linkend="usb-disks"/> for more
        details on <acronym>USB</acronym> device configuration.</para>

      <para>DMA access must also be enabled for
        <acronym>ATAPI</acronym> devices, by adding the following line
        to <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename>:</para>

      <programlisting>hw.ata.atapi_dma="1"</programlisting>

      <para>Before attempting to use
        <application>dvd+rw-tools</application>, consult the <link
          xlink:href="http://fy.chalmers.se/~appro/linux/DVD+RW/hcn.html">Hardware
          Compatibility Notes</link>.</para>

      <note>
        <para>For a graphical user interface, consider using
          <package>sysutils/k3b</package> which provides a user
          friendly interface to &man.growisofs.1; and many other
          burning tools.</para>
      </note>
    </sect2>


      <title>Burning Data <acronym>DVD</acronym>s</title>

      <para>Since &man.growisofs.1; is a front-end to <link
          linkend="mkisofs">mkisofs</link>, it will invoke
        &man.mkisofs.8; to create the file system layout and perform
        the write on the <acronym>DVD</acronym>.  This means that an
        image of the data does not need to be created before the
        burning process.</para>

      <para>To burn to a DVD+R or a DVD-R the data in
        <filename>/path/to/data</filename>, use the following
        command:</para>

      <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>growisofs -dvd-compat -Z <replaceable>/dev/cd0</replaceable> -J -R <replaceable>/path/to/data</replaceable></userinput></screen>

      <para>In this example, <option>-J -R</option> is passed to
        &man.mkisofs.8;  to create an ISO 9660 file system with Joliet
        and Rock Ridge extensions.  Refer to &man.mkisofs.8; for more
        details.</para>

      <para>For the initial session recording, <option>-Z</option> is
        used for both single and multiple sessions.  Replace
        <replaceable>/dev/cd0</replaceable>, with the name of the
        <acronym>DVD</acronym> device.  Using
        <option>-dvd-compat</option> indicates that the disk will be
        closed and that the recording will be unappendable.  This
        should also provide better media compatibility with
        <acronym>DVD-ROM</acronym> drives.</para>

      <para>To burn a pre-mastered image, such as
        <replaceable>imagefile.iso</replaceable>, use:</para>

      <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>growisofs -dvd-compat -Z <replaceable>/dev/cd0</replaceable>=<replaceable>imagefile.iso</replaceable></userinput></screen>

      <para>The write speed should be detected and automatically set
        according to the media and the drive being used.  To force the
        write speed, use  <option>-speed=</option>.  Refer to
        &man.growisofs.1; for example usage.</para>

      <note>
        <para>In order to support working files larger than 4.38GB, an
          UDF/ISO-9660 hybrid file system must be created by passing
          <option>-udf -iso-level 3</option> to &man.mkisofs.8; and
          all related programs, such as &man.growisofs.1;.  This is
          required only when creating an ISO image file or when
          writing files directly to a disk.  Since a disk created this
          way must be mounted as an UDF file system with
          &man.mount.udf.8;, it will be usable only on an UDF aware
          operating system.  Otherwise it will look as if it contains
          corrupted files.</para>

        <para>To create this type of ISO file:</para>

        <screen>&prompt.user; <userinput>mkisofs -R -J -udf -iso-level 3 -o <replaceable>imagefile.iso</replaceable> <replaceable>/path/to/data</replaceable></userinput></screen>

        <para>To burn files directly to a disk:</para>

        <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>growisofs -dvd-compat -udf -iso-level 3 -Z <replaceable>/dev/cd0</replaceable> -J -R <replaceable>/path/to/data</replaceable></userinput></screen>

        <para>When an ISO image already contains large files, no
          additional options are required for &man.growisofs.1; to
          burn that image on a disk.</para>

        <para>Be sure to use an up-to-date version of
          <package>sysutils/cdrtools</package>, which contains
          &man.mkisofs.8;, as an older version may not contain large
          files support.  If the latest version does not work, install
          <package>sysutils/cdrtools-devel</package> and read its
          &man.mkisofs.8;.</para>
      </note>
    </sect2>


      <title>Burning a <acronym>DVD</acronym>-Video</title>

      <indexterm>
        <primary><acronym>DVD</acronym></primary>
        <secondary>DVD-Video</secondary>
      </indexterm>

      <para>A DVD-Video is a specific file layout based on the ISO
        9660 and micro-UDF (M-UDF) specifications.  Since DVD-Video
        presents a specific data structure hierarchy, a particular
        program such as <package>multimedia/dvdauthor</package> is
        needed to author the <acronym>DVD</acronym>.</para>

      <para>If an image of the DVD-Video file system already exists,
        it can be burned in the same way as any other image.  If
        <command>dvdauthor</command> was used to make the
        <acronym>DVD</acronym> and the result is in
        <filename>/path/to/video</filename>, the following command
        should be used to burn the DVD-Video:</para>

      <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>growisofs -Z <replaceable>/dev/cd0</replaceable> -dvd-video <replaceable>/path/to/video</replaceable></userinput></screen>

      <para><option>-dvd-video</option> is passed to &man.mkisofs.8;
        to instruct it to create a DVD-Video file system layout.
        This option implies the <option>-dvd-compat</option>
        &man.growisofs.1; option.</para>
    </sect2>

    <sect2>

      <title>Using a <acronym>DVD+RW</acronym></title>

      <indexterm>
        <primary><acronym>DVD</acronym></primary>
        <secondary><acronym>DVD+RW</acronym></secondary>
      </indexterm>

      <para>Unlike CD-RW, a virgin <acronym>DVD+RW</acronym> needs to
        be formatted before first use.  It is
        <emphasis>recommended</emphasis> to let &man.growisofs.1; take
        care of this automatically whenever appropriate.  However, it
        is possible to use <command>dvd+rw-format</command> to format
        the <acronym>DVD+RW</acronym>:</para>

      <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>dvd+rw-format <replaceable>/dev/cd0</replaceable></userinput></screen>

      <para>Only perform this operation once and keep in mind that
        only virgin <acronym>DVD+RW</acronym> medias need to be
        formatted.  Once formatted, the <acronym>DVD+RW</acronym> can
        be burned as usual.</para>

      <para>To burn a totally new file system and not just append some
        data onto a <acronym>DVD+RW</acronym>, the media does not need
        to be blanked first.  Instead, write over the previous
        recording like this:</para>

      <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>growisofs -Z <replaceable>/dev/cd0</replaceable> -J -R <replaceable>/path/to/newdata</replaceable></userinput></screen>

      <para>The <acronym>DVD+RW</acronym> format supports appending
        data to a previous recording.  This operation consists of
        merging a new session to the existing one as it is not
        considered to be multi-session writing.  &man.growisofs.1;
        will <emphasis>grow</emphasis> the ISO 9660 file system
        present on the media.</para>

      <para>For example, to append data to a
        <acronym>DVD+RW</acronym>, use the following:</para>

      <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>growisofs -M <replaceable>/dev/cd0</replaceable> -J -R <replaceable>/path/to/nextdata</replaceable></userinput></screen>

      <para>The same &man.mkisofs.8; options used to burn the
        initial session should be used during next writes.</para>

      <note>
        <para>Use <option>-dvd-compat</option> for better media
          compatibility with <acronym>DVD-ROM</acronym> drives.  When
          using <acronym>DVD+RW</acronym>, this option will not
          prevent the addition of data.</para>
      </note>

      <para>To blank the media, use:</para>

      <title>Using a <acronym>DVD-RW</acronym></title>

      <indexterm>
        <primary><acronym>DVD</acronym></primary>
        <secondary><acronym>DVD-RW</acronym></secondary>
      </indexterm>

      <para>A <acronym>DVD-RW</acronym> accepts two disc formats:
        incremental sequential and restricted overwrite.  By default,
        <acronym>DVD-RW</acronym> discs are in sequential
        format.</para>

      <para>A virgin <acronym>DVD-RW</acronym> can be directly written
        without being formatted.  However, a non-virgin
        <acronym>DVD-RW</acronym> in sequential format needs to be
        blanked before writing a new initial session.</para>

      <para>To blank a <acronym>DVD-RW</acronym> in sequential
        mode:</para>

      <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>dvd+rw-format -blank=full <replaceable>/dev/cd0</replaceable></userinput></screen>

      <note>
        <para>A full blanking using <option>-blank=full</option> will
          take about one hour on a 1x media.  A fast blanking can be
          performed using <option>-blank</option>, if the
          <acronym>DVD-RW</acronym> will be recorded in Disk-At-Once
          (DAO) mode.  To burn the <acronym>DVD-RW</acronym> in DAO
          mode, use the command:</para>

        <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>growisofs -use-the-force-luke=dao -Z <replaceable>/dev/cd0</replaceable>=<replaceable>imagefile.iso</replaceable></userinput></screen>

        <para>Since &man.growisofs.1; automatically attempts to detect
          fast blanked media and engage DAO write,
          <option>-use-the-force-luke=dao</option> should not be
          required.</para>

        <para>One should instead use restricted overwrite mode with
          any <acronym>DVD-RW</acronym> as this format is more
          flexible than the default of incremental sequential.</para>
      </note>

      <para>To write data on a sequential <acronym>DVD-RW</acronym>,
        use the same instructions as for the other
        <acronym>DVD</acronym> formats:</para>

      <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>growisofs -Z <replaceable>/dev/cd0</replaceable> -J -R <replaceable>/path/to/data</replaceable></userinput></screen>

      <para>To append some data to a previous recording, use
        <option>-M</option> with &man.growisofs.1;.  However, if data
        is appended on a <acronym>DVD-RW</acronym> in incremental
        sequential mode, a new session will be created on the disc and
        the result will be a multi-session disc.</para>

      <para>A <acronym>DVD-RW</acronym> in restricted overwrite format
        does not need to be blanked before a new initial session.
        Instead, overwrite the disc with <option>-Z</option>.  It is
        also possible to grow an existing ISO 9660 file system written
        on the disc with <option>-M</option>.  The result will be a
        one-session <acronym>DVD</acronym>.</para>

      <para>To put a <acronym>DVD-RW</acronym> in restricted overwrite
        format, the following command must be used:</para>

      <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>dvd+rw-format <replaceable>/dev/cd0</replaceable></userinput></screen>


      <title>Multi-Session</title>

      <para>Few <acronym>DVD-ROM</acronym> drives support
        multi-session DVDs and most of the time only read the first
        session.  DVD+R, DVD-R and <acronym>DVD-RW</acronym> in
        sequential format can accept multiple sessions.  The notion
        of multiple sessions does not exist for the
        <acronym>DVD+RW</acronym> and the <acronym>DVD-RW</acronym>
        restricted overwrite formats.</para>

      <para>Using the following command after an initial non-closed
        session on a DVD+R, DVD-R, or <acronym>DVD-RW</acronym> in
        sequential format, will add a new session to the disc:</para>

      <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>growisofs -M <replaceable>/dev/cd0</replaceable> -J -R <replaceable>/path/to/nextdata</replaceable></userinput></screen>

      <para>Using this command with a <acronym>DVD+RW</acronym> or a
        <acronym>DVD-RW</acronym> in restricted overwrite mode will
        append data while merging the new session to the existing one.
        The result will be a single-session disc.  Use this method to
        add data after an initial write on these types of
        media.</para>

      <note>
        <para>Since some space on the media is used between each
          session to mark the end and start of sessions, one should
          add sessions with a large amount of data to optimize media
          space.  The number of sessions is limited to 154 for a
          DVD+R, about 2000 for a DVD-R, and 127 for a DVD+R Double
          Layer.</para>
      </note>
    </sect2>


      <title>For More Information</title>

      <para>To obtain more information about a <acronym>DVD</acronym>,
        use <command>dvd+rw-mediainfo
          <replaceable>/dev/cd0</replaceable></command> while the
        disc in the specified drive.</para>

      <para>More information about
        <application>dvd+rw-tools</application> can be found in
        &man.growisofs.1;, on the <link
          xlink:href="http://fy.chalmers.se/~appro/linux/DVD+RW/">dvd+rw-tools
          web site</link>, and in the <link
          xlink:href="http://lists.debian.org/cdwrite/">cdwrite
          mailing list</link> archives.</para>

      <note>
        <para>When creating a problem report related to the use of
          <application>dvd+rw-tools</application>, always include the
          output of <command>dvd+rw-mediainfo</command>.</para>
      </note>
    </sect2>


      <title>Using a <acronym>DVD-RAM</acronym></title>

      <indexterm>
        <primary><acronym>DVD</acronym></primary>
        <secondary><acronym>DVD-RAM</acronym></secondary>
      </indexterm>

      <para><acronym>DVD-RAM</acronym> writers can use either a
        <acronym>SCSI</acronym> or <acronym>ATAPI</acronym> interface.
        For <acronym>ATAPI</acronym> devices, DMA access has to be
        enabled by adding the following line to
        <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename>:</para>

      <programlisting>hw.ata.atapi_dma="1"</programlisting>

      <para>A <acronym>DVD-RAM</acronym> can be seen as a removable
        hard drive.  Like any other hard drive, the
        <acronym>DVD-RAM</acronym> must be formatted before it can be
        used.  In this example, the whole disk space will be formatted
        with a standard UFS2 file system:</para>

      <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>dd if=/dev/zero of=<replaceable>/dev/acd0</replaceable> bs=2k count=1</userinput>
&prompt.root; <userinput>bsdlabel -Bw <replaceable>acd0</replaceable></userinput>

&prompt.root; <userinput>newfs <replaceable>/dev/acd0</replaceable></userinput></screen>

      <para>The <acronym>DVD</acronym> device,
        <filename>acd0</filename>, must be changed according to the
        configuration.</para>

      <para>Once the <acronym>DVD-RAM</acronym> has been formatted, it
        can be mounted as a normal hard drive:</para>

      <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>mount <replaceable>/dev/acd0</replaceable> <replaceable>/mnt</replaceable></userinput></screen>

      <para>Once mounted, the <acronym>DVD-RAM</acronym> will be both
        readable and writeable.</para>
    </sect2>
  </sect1>



<!--
      <authorgroup>
        <author>
          <personname>
            <firstname>Julio</firstname>
            <surname>Merino</surname>
          </personname>
          <contrib>Original work by </contrib>
        </author>
      </authorgroup>

      <authorgroup>
        <author>
          <personname>
            <firstname>Martin</firstname>
            <surname>Karlsson</surname>
          </personname>
          <contrib>Rewritten by </contrib>
        </author>
      </authorgroup>
      -->


      <title>Steps to Format a Floppy</title>

      <para>A floppy disk needs to be low-level formatted before it
        can be used.  This is usually done by the vendor, but
        formatting is a good way to check media integrity.  To
        low-level format the floppy disk on &os;, use
        &man.fdformat.1;.  When using this utility, make note of any
        error messages, as these can help determine if the disk is
        good or bad.</para>

      <step>
        <para>To format the floppy, insert a new 3.5 inch floppy disk
          into the first floppy drive and issue:</para>

          <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>/usr/sbin/fdformat -f 1440 /dev/fd0</userinput></screen>
      </step>

      <step>
        <para>After low-level formatting the disk, create a disk label
          as it is needed by the system to determine the size of the
          disk and its geometry.  The supported geometry values are
          listed in <filename>/etc/disktab</filename>.</para>

        <para>To write the disk label, use &man.bsdlabel.8;:</para>

        <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>/sbin/bsdlabel -B -w /dev/fd0 fd1440</userinput></screen>
      </step>

      <step>
        <para>The floppy is now ready to be high-level formatted with
          a file system.  The floppy's file system can be either UFS
          or FAT, where FAT is generally a better choice for
          floppies.</para>

        <para>To format the floppy with FAT, issue:</para>

        <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>/sbin/newfs_msdos /dev/fd0</userinput></screen>
      </step>
    </procedure>



<!--
    <authorgroup>
        <author>
          <personname>
            <firstname>Lowell</firstname>
            <surname>Gilbert</surname>
          </personname>
          <contrib>Original work by </contrib>
        </author>
      </authorgroup>
      -->



    <itemizedlist>
      <listitem>
        <para>Archives of the whole system, backed up onto permanent,
          off-site media.  This provides protection against all of the
          problems listed above, but is slow and inconvenient to
          restore from, especially for non-privileged users.</para>
      </listitem>

      <listitem>
        <para>File system snapshots, which are useful for restoring
          deleted files or previous versions of files.</para>
      </listitem>

      <listitem>
        <para>Copies of whole file systems or disks which are
          synchronized with another system on the network using a
          scheduled <package>net/rsync</package>.</para>
      </listitem>

      <listitem>
        <para>Hardware or software <acronym>RAID</acronym>, which
          minimizes or avoids downtime when a disk fails.</para>
      </listitem>
    </itemizedlist>


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